I. Introduction
This paper critically examines the philosophical principle of Molto Homo mensura (man is the measure of all things) in the context of postmodernism and its relativistic ethos. The focus is on how tools of postmodernism—particularly deconstruction and relativism—have been adopted and adapted by Progressive Christian scholars to challenge traditional notions of objective truth in theology. The study explores the resulting crisis in Christian theology, ethics, and society, while proposing a theological framework for recovering objective truth as essential to the Christian faith.
1. Statement of the Problem
The rise of relativism as a dominant philosophical and theological ethos represents one of the most significant intellectual challenges facing contemporary theology and culture. Relativism, as a philosophical framework, asserts that truth is not absolute but rather contingent upon human perception and socio-historical context. Rooted in Protagoras’s dictum, “man is the measure of all things,” relativism denies the existence of universal or objective truth claims.¹ This philosophical trend has found fertile ground in the postmodern era, which rejects metanarratives and objective epistemological structures in favor of fragmented, localized, and subjective interpretations.² The prevalence of relativistic thought has permeated theological discourse, particularly through the adoption of postmodern tools such as deconstruction, which calls into question traditional doctrinal formulations and their claims to objective truth.
Progressive Christianity, which seeks to adapt the Christian tradition to contemporary cultural contexts, has widely embraced postmodern tools, including relativism, to reinterpret or deconstruct traditional doctrines.³ Figures such as John Shelby Spong, Marcus Borg, and Brian McLaren have utilized these methodologies to challenge core Christian tenets, such as the resurrection, the atonement, and biblical inerrancy, often reducing them to symbolic or metaphorical constructs.⁴ While their approach seeks to render Christianity more inclusive and relevant in a pluralistic society, it simultaneously raises profound theological concerns about the coherence and stability of the faith. The relativization of core doctrines threatens to erode the universality of the gospel message, undermining its ability to serve as a definitive moral and theological compass.
The crisis of objective truth is not confined to theological discourse but extends into broader cultural and societal domains. The rejection of absolute moral and epistemological standards has led to ethical pluralism and social fragmentation.⁵ For instance, a 2021 survey conducted by Barna Research found that 58% of Americans now believe that moral truth is up to the individual, while only 42% affirm the existence of absolute moral standards—a decline of over 20% from the previous decade.⁶ This cultural drift has profound implications for Christian witness, as the church increasingly struggles to articulate and defend its message in a society that prioritizes subjective authenticity over divine authority. Consequently, the crisis of relativism is not merely an abstract intellectual issue but a pressing existential challenge for theology and society.
2. Research Questions
The phenomenon of Progressive Christianity’s reliance on postmodern tools raises critical questions for contemporary theological inquiry. First, how do Progressive Christian scholars employ postmodern methodologies such as deconstruction and relativism to critique and reinterpret traditional notions of objective truth? This question necessitates a detailed examination of their writings, particularly the works of prominent figures like Spong, Borg, and McLaren, who argue for a shift from doctrinal absolutism to contextualized, evolving interpretations of faith.⁷ Their approach often involves critiquing perceived power dynamics within traditional theological structures, echoing the postmodern suspicion of institutional authority.⁸
Second, what are the theological and societal implications of relativism within Progressive Christianity? While Progressive Christianity positions itself as a corrective to perceived exclusivity and dogmatism within traditional theology, it has often been critiqued for inadvertently contributing to theological fragmentation and doctrinal incoherence.⁹ Moreover, the relativistic ethos has broader societal ramifications, as it influences ethical frameworks, cultural norms, and public policy debates. For instance, relativism’s influence on contemporary discussions about gender, sexuality, and identity often reflects the prioritization of subjective narratives over objective moral principles.¹⁰ Examining these dynamics is crucial for understanding the broader impact of relativism on both theology and culture.
Finally, how can theology respond to the epistemological and cultural crisis of relativism? This question seeks to identify constructive theological strategies for reasserting the primacy of objective truth in a manner that is both faithful to biblical orthodoxy and responsive to contemporary cultural challenges.¹¹ Such an endeavor requires engaging not only with classical theological resources but also with the insights of modern and postmodern thought, seeking a balanced approach that acknowledges the complexity of truth while affirming its divine source and universal applicability.¹²
3. Thesis Statement
This paper argues that the adoption of postmodern tools by Progressive Christian scholars has contributed to a theological and societal crisis by undermining objective truth. Progressive Christianity’s reliance on relativism and deconstruction has often led to the erosion of doctrinal clarity, replacing the timeless truths of Christian theology with culturally contingent interpretations. For example, John Shelby Spong’s rejection of supernaturalism as an essential aspect of faith and Marcus Borg’s emphasis on metaphorical over historical truths exemplify this trend.¹³ While such approaches aim to make Christianity more accessible in a pluralistic age, they risk compromising the very foundations of the faith by relativizing its core tenets.
The crisis extends beyond theological circles into society at large, where relativism has contributed to a fragmented moral landscape. The Barna Research findings highlight the extent of this shift, with a growing majority of individuals rejecting the notion of absolute truth.¹⁴ This cultural trend has significant implications for the church’s role as a moral and spiritual guide, challenging its ability to address pressing ethical issues with a unified voice. Moreover, the rejection of objective truth undermines the church’s ability to offer a compelling alternative to the nihilism and despair that often accompany relativistic worldviews.
In response to this crisis, the paper contends that a recovery of theological realism is essential. By affirming the existence of divine objective truth, theology can provide a stable foundation for Christian doctrine and ethics, offering a coherent and transformative vision of faith for a fragmented world. This recovery involves reengaging with classical theological resources, such as Augustine’s emphasis on divine illumination and Aquinas’s integration of faith and reason, while critically engaging with the insights and limitations of postmodern thought.¹⁵ Only by reclaiming the primacy of objective truth can theology effectively address the epistemological and cultural challenges of the relativist ethos.
II. Philosophical Foundations
1. Historical Roots of Relativism
The concept of relativism has deep philosophical roots, originating in the ancient Greek sophistic tradition. Protagoras’s famous dictum, “man is the measure of all things” (Molto Homo mensura), articulated in Plato’s Theaetetus, serves as the foundational articulation of relativism.¹⁶ For Protagoras, truth and reality were subjective, varying based on individual perception. This principle subverts any notion of universal or objective truth by asserting that all knowledge is contingent upon the observer’s perspective. Protagoras’s relativism emerged as a counterpoint to the metaphysical absolutism of philosophers like Parmenides and Plato, who asserted the existence of immutable truths and forms.¹⁷ The enduring influence of Protagoras’s thought underscores the tension between objective and subjective epistemologies that has persisted throughout intellectual history.
The Enlightenment further complicated the philosophical discourse surrounding truth by shifting the locus of knowledge from divine revelation to human reason. Thinkers such as René Descartes, David Hume, and Immanuel Kant emphasized the primacy of human cognition and empirical observation in the acquisition of knowledge.¹⁸ Descartes’s methodological skepticism, which sought to ground knowledge in the indubitable certainty of the cogito, introduced an epistemological framework in which subjective reasoning became the foundation for truth.¹⁹ However, Hume’s radical empiricism and Kant’s epistemological dualism exposed the limitations of reason and the inaccessibility of objective reality. Kant, for instance, argued that while humans can perceive phenomena, the noumenal realm—reality as it exists independently of perception—remains forever inaccessible.²⁰ This Enlightenment turn, while revolutionary, laid the groundwork for the relativistic paradigms of modernity and postmodernity by situating truth within the confines of human cognition and subjectivity.
The skepticism cultivated by Enlightenment epistemology reached its zenith in the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly in the works of Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche’s proclamation that “God is dead” encapsulated the collapse of objective metaphysical and moral frameworks, a collapse precipitated by the Enlightenment’s secularizing tendencies.²¹ Nietzsche’s perspectivism—his belief that all knowledge is conditioned by the perspectives of individuals or cultures—further radicalized the relativistic tradition.²² Nietzsche’s thought, particularly his critique of universal moral values, exerted a profound influence on the development of postmodern philosophy, setting the stage for the rejection of metanarratives and the embrace of pluralism.
Relativism’s historical trajectory reveals its intrinsic link to broader cultural and intellectual shifts. The transition from premodern theocentrism to modern anthropocentrism marked a decisive move toward relativistic thinking.²³ While premodern thinkers such as Augustine and Aquinas grounded truth in the immutable nature of God, modern philosophers increasingly located truth in human reason and experience. This anthropocentric turn, while advancing scientific and philosophical inquiry, simultaneously destabilized the metaphysical foundations of objective truth, a destabilization that would be fully realized in the postmodern era.
The ramifications of this historical evolution are evident in contemporary culture. The Barna Group’s 2021 study found that 74% of Millennials affirm the relativistic notion that “whatever is right for your life or works best for you is the only truth you can know.”²⁴ Such data underscores the extent to which relativistic thinking, rooted in the philosophical traditions of Protagoras and the Enlightenment, has permeated modern consciousness. Understanding these historical roots is essential for engaging the philosophical and theological challenges posed by relativism today.
2. Postmodernism and the Radicalization of Relativism
Postmodernism represents a radicalization of the relativistic tendencies inaugurated by the Enlightenment. At its core, postmodernism challenges the Enlightenment’s faith in reason, objectivity, and progress, asserting instead that all knowledge is socially constructed, contingent, and historically situated. Jean-François Lyotard’s definition of postmodernism as “incredulity toward metanarratives” epitomizes this paradigm.²⁵ Lyotard critiques grand, universalizing narratives—such as the Enlightenment’s narrative of progress or Christianity’s narrative of salvation—as mechanisms of power that suppress alternative voices and perspectives.²⁶ This postmodern critique effectively dismantles the possibility of universal truth, leaving in its wake a fragmented epistemological landscape in which all truths are relative to their cultural or linguistic contexts.
Jacques Derrida’s philosophy of deconstruction further radicalizes postmodern relativism by challenging the stability and determinacy of meaning in language. According to Derrida, meaning is not fixed but endlessly deferred through a process he terms différance, in which words derive their meaning only in relation to other words.²⁷ This linguistic indeterminacy undermines the possibility of objective truth claims, as all statements become subject to reinterpretation and recontextualization. Derrida’s deconstructionist approach has had profound implications for theology, particularly in its critique of traditional scriptural hermeneutics and doctrinal formulations.²⁸ By exposing the textual and interpretive contingencies underlying theological claims, deconstruction challenges the authority of doctrinal orthodoxy.
Michel Foucault’s analysis of power and knowledge further amplifies the relativistic ethos of postmodernism. For Foucault, truth is not an objective reality but a product of power relations embedded within social institutions and discourses.²⁹ In his seminal work, Discipline and Punish, Foucault demonstrates how systems of power construct and sustain particular regimes of truth, thereby marginalizing alternative perspectives.³⁰ This postmodern critique of power has been instrumental in shaping Progressive Christian thought, which often seeks to deconstruct traditional theological structures as instruments of patriarchal or colonial dominance.
The implications of postmodern relativism are far-reaching, extending beyond the academy into the broader cultural sphere. For instance, the 2022 Edelman Trust Barometer reports a significant decline in public trust in traditional institutions, including the church, with only 33% of respondents expressing confidence in religious leaders.³¹ This erosion of trust is symptomatic of postmodern skepticism toward institutional authority and universal truth claims. Such cultural trends underscore the urgency of addressing the challenges posed by postmodern relativism to both theology and society.
While postmodernism’s critiques of modernity and institutional power are not without merit, its relativistic conclusions raise significant philosophical and theological concerns. By rejecting universal truths, postmodernism risks descending into nihilism, a prospect anticipated by Nietzsche and critiqued by contemporary thinkers such as Alasdair MacIntyre.³² The task for theology, therefore, is to critically engage with postmodern insights while resisting the relativistic tendencies that undermine the coherence and universality of the Christian faith.
3. Relativism in Theology
The infiltration of postmodern relativism into theological discourse has precipitated a profound crisis in contemporary Christianity. Postmodern thinkers such as Derrida and Foucault have provided Progressive Christian scholars with the tools to critique and deconstruct traditional metaphysical and theological claims.³³ This deconstructionist approach challenges the notion of objective theological truth, asserting instead that religious doctrines are culturally and historically conditioned narratives subject to revision.³⁴ While such critiques aim to make theology more inclusive and responsive to contemporary cultural contexts, they also risk undermining the universality and timelessness of the gospel message.
Progressive Christian theologians such as John Shelby Spong and Marcus Borg exemplify the application of postmodern relativism to theological inquiry. Spong’s rejection of supernaturalism as a foundational aspect of Christianity reflects a broader postmodern skepticism toward metaphysical claims.³⁵ Similarly, Borg’s distinction between the “pre-Easter Jesus” (the historical figure) and the “post-Easter Jesus” (a metaphorical construct) epitomizes the relativization of Christological truth.³⁶ These theological revisions, while appealing to contemporary sensibilities, often conflict with traditional Christian orthodoxy, which affirms the objective reality of God’s revelation in Christ.
The shift from objective theological claims to contextually constructed religious narratives has significant implications for Christian doctrine and practice. For instance, the relativization of biblical authority has led to a proliferation of interpretive frameworks, many of which prioritize individual or communal experience over the text’s original meaning.³⁷ This hermeneutical pluralism, while enriching in some respects, risks fragmenting the theological unity of the church. Furthermore, the relativistic ethos has influenced contemporary debates on ethics, particularly in areas such as sexuality, gender, and social justice, where traditional Christian teachings are increasingly contested.³⁸
The broader societal consequences of theological relativism are equally concerning. As Barna’s research indicates, relativistic thinking is contributing to a decline in religious affiliation and participation, particularly among younger generations.³⁹ This cultural drift away from objective truth underscores the urgency of addressing the theological and philosophical challenges posed by relativism. Without a robust defense of objective truth, the church risks losing its capacity to serve as a moral and spiritual anchor in an increasingly pluralistic and fragmented world.
In response to these challenges, theologians must develop a constructive framework that engages with postmodern insights while affirming the primacy of divine objective truth. Such a framework would draw upon the resources of classical theology, particularly the works of Augustine and Aquinas, to articulate a vision of truth that is both timeless and transformative.⁴⁰ By reasserting the universality of the gospel, theology can offer a compelling alternative to the relativism that pervades contemporary culture and thought.
III. Progressive Christianity and the Tools of Postmodernism
1. Progressive Christianity’s Postmodern Framework
Progressive Christianity has emerged as a distinct theological movement heavily influenced by postmodern philosophy, particularly its emphasis on relativism and deconstruction. At its core, Progressive Christianity seeks to adapt Christian theology to contemporary cultural contexts, employing postmodern tools to critique and often reconstruct traditional doctrines. Deconstruction, as articulated by Jacques Derrida, posits that meaning in texts, including sacred texts, is unstable and contingent on interpretive contexts.⁴¹ In theological terms, this methodology enables Progressive Christians to challenge doctrines such as the Trinity, the atonement, and the resurrection, arguing that these are not timeless truths but rather contextual interpretations reflective of specific historical and cultural moments.⁴² This approach seeks to democratize theological discourse, empowering marginalized voices while dismantling traditional hierarchies of interpretation.
One of the primary applications of postmodernism in Progressive Christianity is its relativization of biblical authority. Progressive theologians reject the notion of biblical inerrancy, instead framing Scripture as a collection of human writings that reflect the evolving spiritual consciousness of their authors.⁴³ This perspective draws on postmodern critiques of metanarratives, which view claims of absolute authority as tools of oppression.⁴⁴ Consequently, biblical ethics are no longer seen as universally binding but as adaptable to contemporary contexts. For instance, Progressive theologians often reinterpret traditional teachings on sexuality and marriage, arguing that these reflect ancient cultural norms rather than divine imperatives.⁴⁵ While this hermeneutical flexibility appeals to those seeking a more inclusive Christianity, it raises significant questions about the coherence and authority of Christian doctrine.
The postmodern framework of Progressive Christianity also prioritizes experiential and contextual theology over objective doctrinal formulations. Rather than asserting universal truth claims, Progressive theologians emphasize the subjective experience of faith and the particularity of cultural and historical contexts.⁴⁶ This approach aligns with broader societal trends that prioritize individual authenticity and pluralism, as reflected in the growing number of Americans who identify as “spiritual but not religious.” According to the Pew Research Center, as of 2021, 29% of U.S. adults describe themselves in these terms, signaling a shift away from institutional religion toward personal spirituality.⁴⁷ Progressive Christianity’s embrace of postmodern relativism resonates with this demographic, offering a faith that is adaptive and inclusive rather than dogmatic.
While the postmodern framework of Progressive Christianity seeks to address the perceived exclusivity and rigidity of traditional doctrines, it also introduces challenges. By prioritizing subjective and contextual interpretations, this approach risks undermining the universality and stability of the Christian message.⁴⁸ Critics argue that the relativization of core doctrines, such as the resurrection, leads to a form of theological fragmentation that erodes the church’s ability to articulate a coherent vision of faith.⁴⁹ Moreover, the emphasis on deconstruction can result in a perpetual process of critique that offers little constructive theological content. As a result, the Progressive Christian engagement with postmodernism raises critical questions about the balance between adaptability and orthodoxy in theological discourse.
The cultural impact of Progressive Christianity’s postmodern framework is profound, reflecting broader shifts in societal attitudes toward truth and authority. A 2022 Gallup survey found that trust in organized religion has declined to an all-time low, with only 31% of Americans expressing confidence in religious institutions.⁵⁰ This erosion of trust mirrors the skepticism toward traditional authority structures promoted by postmodern thought. While Progressive Christianity seeks to respond to this cultural milieu by offering an inclusive and adaptive faith, its reliance on postmodern relativism raises questions about its long-term theological and institutional viability.
2. Key Figures in Progressive Christianity
The writings of John Shelby Spong exemplify the application of postmodern tools to Progressive Christian theology. Spong, a former Episcopal bishop, rejects supernaturalism as a necessary component of Christianity, arguing that doctrines such as the virgin birth, resurrection, and ascension are mythological constructs rather than historical events.⁵¹ In his book Why Christianity Must Change or Die, Spong advocates for a humanistic interpretation of Christianity that prioritizes ethical living and social justice over doctrinal orthodoxy.⁵² While Spong’s work has been praised for its intellectual rigor and cultural relevance, critics contend that it reduces Christianity to a form of ethical relativism that lacks theological depth.⁵³
Marcus Borg, another influential figure in Progressive Christianity, distinguishes between the “historical Jesus” and the “Christ of faith,” emphasizing metaphorical rather than historical interpretations of core doctrines.⁵⁴ Borg argues that traditional views of the resurrection and atonement reflect ancient worldviews that must be reinterpreted in light of modern historical and cultural understandings.⁵⁵ For Borg, the resurrection is not a literal event but a symbol of hope and transformation that transcends historical particularity.⁵⁶ While this perspective appeals to those who struggle with traditional doctrinal formulations, it raises significant theological concerns about the relationship between historical events and the credibility of Christian faith.
Brian McLaren, a prominent voice in the Emerging Church movement, utilizes postmodern theology to reimagine Christianity for a pluralistic and relativistic age. McLaren’s concept of a “generous orthodoxy” rejects dogmatic exclusivity in favor of a more dialogical and inclusive approach to theology.⁵⁷ In his book A New Kind of Christianity, McLaren critiques traditional doctrines such as original sin and substitutionary atonement, arguing that these reflect patriarchal and colonialist ideologies rather than timeless truths.⁵⁸ While McLaren’s emphasis on inclusivity and dialogue resonates with many, critics warn that his rejection of doctrinal boundaries risks diluting the distinctiveness of Christian theology.⁵⁹
Diana Butler Bass employs historical relativism to critique traditional narratives of church history and reinterpret religious authority. Bass’s work highlights the ways in which historical narratives have often excluded marginalized voices and perpetuated hierarchical power structures.⁶⁰ Her emphasis on recovering alternative histories aligns with the postmodern critique of metanarratives, offering a more pluralistic and inclusive vision of Christian tradition.⁶¹ Similarly, Richard Rohr emphasizes mystical relativism, prioritizing individual spiritual experience over doctrinal objectivity.⁶² Rohr’s writings often draw on contemplative and mystical traditions to offer a vision of Christianity that transcends institutional boundaries and doctrinal constraints.⁶³
John Dominic Crossan provides another influential voice in Progressive Christianity, particularly in his interpretation of the resurrection as metaphorical rather than literal. Crossan argues that the resurrection reflects the early Christian community’s experience of divine presence rather than a historical event.⁶⁴ This perspective, while consistent with postmodern skepticism toward historical objectivity, raises significant theological questions about the relationship between history and faith.⁶⁵ Collectively, these figures illustrate the diverse ways in which Progressive Christianity employs postmodern tools to reinterpret traditional doctrines, offering both opportunities and challenges for contemporary theology.
3. Deconstructing Objective Truth
A central feature of Progressive Christianity’s engagement with postmodernism is its deconstruction of objective truth claims. By applying postmodern hermeneutics to the Bible and Christian doctrine, Progressive theologians challenge traditional notions of biblical inerrancy and universal moral norms.⁶⁶ This deconstructionist approach reflects the broader postmodern critique of metanarratives, which views claims to objective truth as tools of oppression that marginalize alternative perspectives.⁶⁷ In theological terms, this perspective leads to the relativization of core doctrines, such as the incarnation and atonement, which are reinterpreted as culturally contingent constructs rather than divinely revealed truths.⁶⁸
The relativization of biblical authority has significant implications for Christian ethics, particularly in areas such as sexuality, gender, and social justice. Progressive theologians often argue that traditional ethical teachings reflect the cultural norms of their time and must be reinterpreted in light of contemporary values.⁶⁹ This perspective has contributed to the growing acceptance of LGBTQ+ inclusion within Progressive Christian communities, as well as a broader emphasis on social justice as a central component of Christian faith.⁷⁰ While these developments reflect a commitment to inclusivity, critics warn that the relativization of biblical ethics risks undermining the church’s ability to provide a unified moral witness in a pluralistic society.⁷¹
The postmodern emphasis on deconstruction also raises questions about the relationship between theology and culture. By prioritizing cultural and historical contexts over universal truth claims, Progressive Christianity risks conflating divine revelation with human constructs.⁷² This tension is evident in the ongoing debates over the authority of Scripture, with some Progressive theologians advocating for a more flexible and adaptive hermeneutic that prioritizes contemporary social concerns.⁷³ While this approach seeks to make Christianity more relevant and inclusive, it also raises theological concerns about the nature and authority of divine truth.⁷⁴
IV. The Crisis of Objective Truth in Theology and Society
1. Consequences for Theology
The rise of relativism in theology has had profound consequences for the coherence of Christian doctrine. By rejecting the notion of objective truth, relativism undermines the foundational unity of Christian theology, replacing it with a fragmented and subjective framework in which every interpretation is equally valid.⁷⁵ Traditionally, Christian theology has been anchored in the belief that divine revelation provides an unchanging foundation for doctrine. However, relativistic frameworks challenge this by asserting that all theological constructs are historically and culturally contingent.⁷⁶ This shift has led to a proliferation of competing interpretations, often grounded more in individual or communal experience than in biblical or creedal authority.⁷⁷ For instance, debates surrounding the resurrection of Christ within Progressive Christianity reveal a sharp divide between those who affirm its historical reality and those who interpret it as a metaphorical or symbolic event.⁷⁸ Such divergences reflect the destabilizing influence of relativism on theological coherence.
One of the most significant impacts of relativism is the erosion of theological authority. Historically, the authority of Scripture, tradition, and ecclesial structures has provided a shared framework for doctrinal development and communal worship.⁷⁹ However, relativism reframes authority as inherently subjective, rendering theological claims contingent upon individual or cultural perspectives. This perspective has contributed to the rise of interpretive pluralism, in which differing theological views are regarded as equally valid, irrespective of their fidelity to historic Christian orthodoxy.⁸⁰ While such pluralism reflects postmodern commitments to inclusivity and diversity, it also challenges the church’s ability to maintain a unified doctrinal identity in the face of conflicting interpretations.
The relativization of theological authority has significant implications for the church’s ability to address contemporary issues. Without a shared foundation of objective truth, theological discourse becomes fragmented, and consensus becomes increasingly elusive.⁸¹ This is particularly evident in debates over ethical and social issues, where differing interpretations of Scripture and doctrine often lead to division rather than dialogue.⁸² For example, disagreements over LGBTQ+ inclusion within Christian communities reflect broader tensions between traditionalist and Progressive approaches to biblical interpretation.⁸³ While these debates highlight the need for ongoing theological reflection, they also underscore the challenges posed by relativism to the coherence and unity of Christian theology.
Statistical evidence highlights the extent of this theological fragmentation. According to a 2021 Barna Group study, only 37% of U.S. pastors identify as holding a biblical worldview, defined as a belief in absolute moral truth and the authority of Scripture.⁸⁴ Among younger pastors, the figure drops to 24%, suggesting a generational shift toward relativistic frameworks.⁸⁵ These findings underscore the growing influence of relativism within Christian leadership, raising questions about the future of doctrinal coherence and authority in the church.
Despite these challenges, some theologians argue that relativism offers opportunities for theological renewal by encouraging dialogue and engagement with diverse perspectives.⁸⁶ By exposing the cultural and historical contingencies underlying traditional doctrines, relativism can foster greater humility and openness in theological reflection. However, this potential must be balanced with a commitment to preserving the core truths of the Christian faith, which provide the foundation for theological coherence and communal identity.⁸⁷
2. Cultural Consequences
The relativism that has infiltrated theology is mirrored in broader cultural trends, particularly in the erosion of moral absolutes. In a society increasingly shaped by postmodern thought, ethical norms are often viewed as subjective and context-dependent rather than universal.⁸⁸ This perspective has led to the rise of ethical relativism, which denies the existence of objective moral standards and instead affirms the validity of multiple, often conflicting, moral frameworks.⁸⁹ While ethical relativism reflects a commitment to pluralism and diversity, it also raises significant concerns about the ability of societies to establish shared values and norms.⁹⁰
One of the most visible consequences of ethical relativism is the fragmentation of public discourse. In the absence of shared moral absolutes, ethical debates often devolve into polarizing conflicts, with each side appealing to its own subjective standards.⁹¹ This dynamic is evident in contemporary debates over issues such as abortion, gender identity, and religious freedom, where competing moral frameworks often seem irreconcilable.⁹² For example, debates over transgender rights frequently pit claims of individual autonomy against concerns about the integrity of biological and social categories, highlighting the challenges of navigating ethical conflicts in a relativistic cultural context.⁹³
The weakening of moral absolutes also has significant implications for the church’s ability to bear witness in a pluralistic society. Historically, the church has served as a moral and spiritual anchor, offering a vision of truth grounded in divine revelation.⁹⁴ However, the relativization of truth has undermined the church’s credibility as a moral authority, contributing to declining levels of trust in religious institutions. According to a 2022 Gallup poll, confidence in organized religion has declined to 31%, the lowest level in U.S. history.⁹⁵ This erosion of trust reflects broader cultural trends that prioritize individual autonomy and subjective experience over institutional authority and universal truth claims.
While ethical relativism poses significant challenges, it also presents opportunities for the church to engage in cultural dialogue. By acknowledging the complexity of ethical issues and the diversity of human experience, the church can model a more compassionate and nuanced approach to moral discourse.⁹⁶ However, this engagement must be grounded in a commitment to objective truth, which provides the foundation for coherent and constructive ethical reflection. Without such a foundation, the church risks becoming complicit in the fragmentation and polarization that characterize contemporary cultural discourse.⁹⁷Recent data highlights the urgency of addressing these cultural challenges. A 2023 Pew Research Center report found that 63% of Americans believe that right and wrong are determined by personal experience rather than universal principles.⁹⁸ This trend underscores the pervasive influence of relativism in shaping contemporary attitudes toward ethics and morality, raising critical questions about the church’s role in offering an alternative vision of truth and justice.⁹⁹
3. Theological and Cultural Case Studies
The redefinition of core doctrines such as sin, salvation, and resurrection within Progressive Christianity illustrates the theological implications of relativism. For many Progressive theologians, sin is no longer understood as a universal condition of human fallenness but as a contextual and relational phenomenon.¹⁰⁰ This reinterpretation often shifts the focus from individual accountability to systemic injustice, emphasizing social transformation over personal redemption.¹⁰¹ While this perspective highlights important dimensions of sin, it risks neglecting the traditional Christian understanding of sin as a condition that separates humanity from God.¹⁰² Similarly, salvation is often reimagined as liberation from systemic oppression rather than reconciliation with God, reflecting a broader shift toward contextual and experiential theology.¹⁰³
The resurrection of Christ, a central tenet of Christian faith, has also been subject to reinterpretation within Progressive Christianity. Figures such as Marcus Borg and John Dominic Crossan view the resurrection as a metaphorical event that symbolizes hope and transformation rather than a historical reality.¹⁰⁴ While such interpretations seek to make the resurrection more accessible to modern sensibilities, they raise significant theological questions about the relationship between historical events and doctrinal truth.¹⁰⁵ By relativizing the resurrection, Progressive Christianity risks undermining the foundation of Christian hope and the credibility of the gospel message.¹⁰⁶
The societal impact of relativism is evident in contemporary debates over gender, sexuality, and justice, where competing moral frameworks often reflect deeper philosophical and theological divisions. For example, debates over same-sex marriage and LGBTQ+ inclusion reveal tensions between traditionalist and Progressive interpretations of biblical authority and ethics.¹⁰⁷ While these debates highlight the importance of engaging diverse perspectives, they also underscore the challenges posed by relativism to the church’s ability to articulate a unified moral vision.¹⁰⁸
Statistical data underscores the cultural resonance of these debates. According to a 2023 Gallup survey, 71% of Americans now support same-sex marriage, up from 27% in 1996.¹⁰⁹ This shift reflects broader cultural trends toward affirming individual autonomy and diversity, raising critical questions about the church’s role in engaging with these issues from a theological perspective.¹¹⁰ By addressing these challenges with humility and clarity, the church can offer a compelling alternative to the relativism that dominates contemporary cultural discourse.¹¹¹
V. Biblical Critique of Relativism
1. Romans 1: The Paradigm of Relativism
Romans 1:18–32 serves as one of the clearest biblical critiques of relativism, presenting a theological diagnosis of humanity’s rejection of divine truth. Paul identifies this rejection as a deliberate suppression of the truth, resulting in humanity’s spiritual and moral degradation.¹¹² This suppression of truth, Paul argues, is not a failure of intellect but a willful act of rebellion against the Creator. The created world provides clear evidence of God’s eternal power and divine nature, leaving humanity “without excuse” (Romans 1:20).¹¹³ Theologically, this passage establishes that the rejection of objective truth is intrinsically linked to the rejection of God’s authority, a relationship that forms the foundation of Paul’s critique of relativism.
The progression outlined in Romans 1 reveals that relativism begins with idolatry. Paul explains that humanity exchanged the glory of the immortal God for images of creation, elevating human constructs and desires to the level of ultimate truth (Romans 1:22–23).¹¹⁴ This idolatrous exchange reflects the essence of relativism: the replacement of divine truth with human-centered interpretations.¹¹⁵ As Carl F. H. Henry observes, relativism is inherently idolatrous because it ascribes ultimate authority to finite human understanding rather than to God’s self-revelation.¹¹⁶ This dynamic underlies the moral and epistemological instability described in Romans 1, where humanity’s rejection of God results in the loss of any firm foundation for truth.
The moral consequences of relativism are vividly depicted in Romans 1:24–32, where Paul describes God’s response to humanity’s rebellion: “God gave them up in the lusts of their hearts to impurity” (Romans 1:24).¹¹⁷ This phrase signifies a divine judgment in which humanity is allowed to experience the full consequences of its idolatry. The rejection of divine truth leads to a descent into moral chaos, characterized by sexual immorality, unnatural relations, and a host of social evils.¹¹⁸ This progression underscores the self-destructive nature of relativism, which Paul portrays as a natural consequence of humanity’s choice to suppress the truth.¹¹⁹
The theological implications of Romans 1 extend beyond moral analysis to a critique of human epistemology. By rejecting God’s revelation, humanity forfeits the ability to discern and uphold objective truth. As Paul explains, “They exchanged the truth about God for a lie and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator” (Romans 1:25).¹²⁰ This epistemological distortion is evident in contemporary culture’s embrace of relativism, where truth is often reduced to individual or cultural preferences. A 2023 study by the Barna Group revealed that 62% of Americans believe that morality is subjective, illustrating the pervasive influence of relativistic thought.¹²¹ Paul’s critique in Romans 1 thus remains profoundly relevant, offering a theological framework for addressing the epistemological crisis of relativism.
Ultimately, Romans 1 presents relativism as both a moral and spiritual issue, rooted in humanity’s rejection of God’s authority. This diagnosis challenges contemporary theological and cultural assumptions by asserting that truth is not merely a human construct but a reality grounded in the character of God.¹²² As such, Paul’s critique provides a compelling basis for resisting the relativistic tendencies of postmodern thought and reaffirming the centrality of divine truth in theology and ethics.¹²³
2. Judges 21:25 and the Historical Pattern of Relativism
The closing verse of the Book of Judges encapsulates the dangers of relativism: “In those days there was no king in Israel. Everyone did what was right in his own eyes” (Judges 21:25). This description of ancient Israel’s moral and social anarchy provides a historical case study of relativism in action.¹²⁴ The absence of a central authority—whether divine or human—led to the fragmentation of ethical norms, as individuals and communities pursued their own definitions of right and wrong.¹²⁵ This pattern mirrors contemporary culture’s embrace of moral relativism, where the rejection of universal truth has resulted in a proliferation of competing and often conflicting moral frameworks.¹²⁶
The narrative of Judges illustrates how the rejection of divine authority leads to social chaos. The episode of the Levite’s concubine in Judges 19, for example, depicts a society in which hospitality, justice, and human dignity are abandoned in favor of violence and exploitation.¹²⁷ This story is emblematic of the broader moral decline described throughout the book, where the absence of a unifying authority results in the disintegration of communal life.¹²⁸ As Daniel Block observes, the ethical anarchy of Judges reflects the inevitable consequences of relativism, where the lack of an objective moral standard leads to societal collapse.¹²⁹
Theological reflection on Judges 21:25 highlights the importance of divine kingship as the foundation for moral and social order. The repeated refrain, “There was no king in Israel,” serves not only as a historical observation but also as a theological critique of human autonomy.¹³⁰ By rejecting God’s authority, Israel forfeited the stability and coherence provided by divine law, resulting in a pattern of moral failure that culminated in national disaster.¹³¹ This critique remains relevant in contemporary culture, where the rejection of objective truth has similarly led to moral fragmentation and social instability.¹³²
The parallels between ancient Israel and contemporary society are striking. Just as the Israelites “did what was right in their own eyes,” modern culture often prioritizes individual autonomy over shared moral principles.¹³³ This trend is evident in debates over issues such as sexuality, gender, and reproductive rights, where personal choice is frequently elevated above traditional ethical norms.¹³⁴ While such debates reflect the complexity of contemporary moral discourse, they also reveal the challenges of navigating ethical conflicts in a relativistic cultural context.¹³⁵
Statistical evidence underscores the cultural resonance of this critique. According to a 2022 Gallup poll, trust in traditional moral institutions has declined significantly, with only 31% of Americans expressing confidence in organized religion.¹³⁶ This erosion of trust reflects a broader cultural shift toward moral individualism and skepticism of authority, mirroring the patterns described in Judges.¹³⁷ By affirming the necessity of divine authority, the biblical critique of relativism offers a counter-narrative to the fragmentation of contemporary culture.¹³⁸
3. The Gospel as Objective Truth
The gospel of Jesus Christ provides the ultimate response to relativism, affirming the existence of objective truth grounded in the character of God. In John 14:6, Jesus declares, “I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (ESV). This statement challenges the relativistic assumption that truth is subjective or negotiable, asserting instead that truth is a person—Jesus Christ—who embodies the fullness of divine revelation.¹³⁹ Theologically, this claim underscores the exclusivity and universality of the gospel, which offers a coherent foundation for moral and spiritual life.¹⁴⁰
The affirmation of objective truth in the gospel is rooted in the authority of Scripture. As the divinely inspired Word of God, Scripture provides a reliable and unchanging standard for faith and practice.¹⁴¹ In a relativistic age, biblical hermeneutics plays a crucial role in preserving the integrity of Christian doctrine by affirming the truth of God’s revelation.¹⁴² This commitment to Scripture challenges the tendency of relativism to reduce biblical texts to culturally contingent interpretations, emphasizing instead their enduring relevance and authority.¹⁴³
The gospel’s emphasis on truth also has profound implications for ethics. By grounding moral principles in the character of God, the gospel offers a framework for evaluating ethical claims that transcends cultural and historical contingencies.¹⁴⁴ This framework provides a basis for addressing contemporary moral issues, such as the sanctity of life and the nature of marriage, from a perspective that affirms the universality and objectivity of divine truth.¹⁴⁵ In this sense, the gospel serves as a counter-narrative to the relativism that dominates contemporary cultural discourse.¹⁴⁶
VI. Engaging Progressive Christianity’s Postmodern Tools
1. Critiques of Progressive Christianity’s Use of Postmodernism
The use of postmodern tools by Progressive Christianity raises important questions regarding theological coherence and integrity. A significant critique of this approach is the apparent incoherence of rejecting objective truth while simultaneously affirming subjective theological claims.¹⁴⁷ Progressive Christian thinkers often deconstruct traditional doctrines, such as the atonement or resurrection, as culturally contingent and historically conditioned. However, many of these same thinkers maintain that their revised theological interpretations hold ethical or spiritual validity.¹⁴⁸ For example, Marcus Borg’s assertion that the resurrection is a metaphor for personal and communal transformation presupposes a meaningful framework, even as it relativizes the historical event.¹⁴⁹ This tension reveals an epistemological inconsistency, as it is unclear how subjective theological claims can retain transformative power if objective truth is entirely abandoned.¹⁵⁰
Another critique centers on the risk of reducing Christianity to cultural accommodation. By prioritizing the values of inclusivity and pluralism, Progressive Christianity often reinterprets doctrines to align with contemporary cultural sensibilities.¹⁵¹ While this approach resonates with a growing segment of society, it risks diluting the distinctiveness of the gospel message. John Shelby Spong’s rejection of supernaturalism, for example, reflects an attempt to make Christianity intellectually acceptable to modern audiences but sacrifices foundational doctrines such as the incarnation and resurrection.¹⁵² The danger lies in reducing the gospel to a mere ethical system or a form of spiritual self-help, thereby forfeiting its capacity to challenge and transform culture.¹⁵³
The theological implications of cultural accommodation are significant. By relativizing core doctrines, Progressive Christianity undermines the universality and stability of Christian truth claims.¹⁵⁴ This relativization poses challenges for evangelism and discipleship, as it becomes difficult to articulate a coherent message that transcends cultural and historical contexts.¹⁵⁵ Furthermore, the emphasis on subjective experience over divine revelation risks creating a faith that is fragmented and individualistic rather than communal and covenantal.¹⁵⁶ A 2023 Pew Research Center survey found that 29% of Americans now identify as “spiritual but not religious,” reflecting a broader cultural shift toward individualized spirituality that aligns with some aspects of Progressive Christianity.¹⁵⁷
Critics also argue that the embrace of postmodern tools can lead to theological relativism, where all interpretations are viewed as equally valid.¹⁵⁸ This perspective challenges the traditional Christian understanding of divine revelation as authoritative and normative. Kevin J. Vanhoozer warns that such relativism undermines the ability of theology to offer a coherent vision of truth, as it becomes impossible to distinguish between orthodoxy and heresy.¹⁵⁹ This dynamic is particularly problematic in areas of ethical debate, where the absence of a shared moral framework leads to confusion and division within the church.¹⁶⁰
Despite these critiques, it is essential to acknowledge the sincere intentions of Progressive Christianity’s engagement with postmodernism. Many Progressive theologians seek to address the perceived exclusivity and rigidity of traditional doctrines, offering a more inclusive vision of faith that responds to contemporary cultural challenges.¹⁶¹ However, this engagement must be tempered by a commitment to theological integrity, recognizing that the transformative power of the gospel lies in its rootedness in objective truth rather than cultural relevance.¹⁶²
2. Insights from Postmodern Thinkers
While critiques of Progressive Christianity’s use of postmodern tools are valid, it is equally important to recognize the valuable insights offered by postmodern thinkers. One of the most significant contributions of postmodernism is its critique of modernist theology, particularly its emphasis on power dynamics within ecclesial structures.¹⁶³ Michel Foucault’s analysis of power and knowledge, for example, exposes how theological interpretations can be shaped by institutional agendas.¹⁶⁴ This critique challenges the church to examine how its teachings have been used to marginalize certain groups, such as women and ethnic minorities, and to pursue greater justice and inclusivity in its practices.¹⁶⁵
Another valuable contribution of postmodernism is its emphasis on deconstruction as a tool for exposing idolatry and institutional corruption. Jacques Derrida’s concept of différance, which highlights the instability of meaning, invites theologians to critically examine how human language and cultural assumptions shape theological discourse.¹⁶⁶ This perspective is particularly relevant in addressing issues of institutional idolatry, where the church has often conflated divine authority with its own cultural or political agendas.¹⁶⁷ By exposing these dynamics, deconstruction can help the church return to a more authentic engagement with Scripture and tradition.¹⁶⁸
Postmodernism also encourages a deeper appreciation for the diversity and particularity of human experience. By rejecting the universalizing tendencies of modernist thought, postmodern thinkers highlight the ways in which cultural and historical contexts shape theological interpretations.¹⁶⁹ This emphasis aligns with biblical narratives, which reflect a God who engages with humanity in specific times and places.¹⁷⁰ For example, the incarnation of Christ embodies the ultimate particularity, as God becomes fully human in a specific historical and cultural context.¹⁷¹ This postmodern insight challenges theologians to embrace a more contextual and relational understanding of divine revelation.
While postmodernism’s critiques of modernist theology are often valid, they must be applied constructively. For example, the postmodern suspicion of metanarratives invites theologians to reexamine the ways in which the Christian metanarrative has been used to justify oppression or exclusion.¹⁷² However, this reexamination must be balanced by an acknowledgment of the transformative power of the gospel, which transcends cultural and historical boundaries.¹⁷³ As John Milbank argues, the Christian metanarrative offers a vision of truth that is not coercive but redemptive, rooted in the self-giving love of God.¹⁷⁴
Theological engagement with postmodernism also requires discernment in distinguishing between its constructive and destructive elements. While postmodern critiques of power and language can expose idolatry and injustice, the rejection of objective truth risks undermining the foundation of Christian theology.¹⁷⁵ By retaining the critical insights of postmodernism while affirming the authority of divine revelation, theologians can navigate the tension between cultural critique and theological fidelity.¹⁷⁶
3. Toward a Balanced Theological Response
In response to the challenges and opportunities posed by postmodernism, theologians must seek a balanced approach that retains the critical tools of postmodernism without abandoning objective truth. One way to achieve this balance is by recognizing the provisional and finite nature of human theological constructs while affirming the ultimate authority of divine revelation.¹⁷⁷ This approach acknowledges the limitations of human language and interpretation while grounding theology in the unchanging truth of God’s Word.¹⁷⁸ Such a framework enables theologians to engage critically with cultural and historical contexts without compromising the universality of the gospel message.¹⁷⁹
Another key element of a balanced theological response is the integration of postmodern critique into a realist theological paradigm. Realist theology affirms that truth exists independently of human perception and is revealed by God through Scripture and creation.¹⁸⁰ By incorporating postmodern insights into this framework, theologians can address issues of power, language, and context without succumbing to relativism.¹⁸¹ For example, constructive postmodern approaches to hermeneutics can enrich biblical interpretation by highlighting the diversity of perspectives within the text while maintaining its divine inspiration and authority.¹⁸²
A balanced theological response also requires a commitment to the transformative power of the gospel. While postmodernism emphasizes critique and deconstruction, Christian theology must go beyond critique to offer a redemptive vision of truth and justice.¹⁸³ This vision is rooted in the person of Christ, who embodies the ultimate reconciliation of truth and love.¹⁸⁴ By grounding theological reflection in the gospel, theologians can navigate the tensions between cultural engagement and doctrinal fidelity, offering a message that is both prophetic and pastoral.¹⁸⁵
The integration of postmodern critique into a realist theological paradigm also requires a renewed emphasis on the role of the church as a community of interpretation. By fostering dialogue and accountability within the body of Christ, the church can navigate the complexities of postmodernity while remaining faithful to the gospel.¹⁸⁶ This communal dimension of theology reflects the relational nature of truth, which is not merely an abstract concept but a lived reality embodied in the life of the church.¹⁸⁷
Ultimately, a balanced theological response to postmodernism must affirm the centrality of Christ as the ultimate standard of truth. As Jesus declares in John 14:6, “I am the way, and the truth, and the life” (ESV).¹⁸⁸ This affirmation challenges the relativistic tendencies of postmodern thought by grounding truth in the person of Christ, who reveals the fullness of God’s character and purposes.¹⁸⁹ By engaging critically with postmodernism while remaining rooted in the gospel, theologians can offer a compelling vision of truth that speaks to the challenges and aspirations of contemporary culture.¹⁹⁰
VII. Recovering Objective Truth in Theology and Society
1. Theological Epistemology
The recovery of objective truth in theology must begin with a theological epistemology that roots truth in the nature and character of God. In Christian theology, truth is not an abstract concept but a reflection of God’s immutable essence. Scripture affirms this repeatedly, declaring God to be a God of truth (Deuteronomy 32:4; Psalm 31:5).¹⁹¹ This theological grounding establishes that truth is neither contingent nor subjective but is eternally anchored in the divine nature. As Jesus Himself proclaims in John 14:6, “I am the way, and the truth, and the life” (ESV), demonstrating that truth is ultimately a person, fully revealed in the life and work of Christ.¹⁹² This relational dimension of truth challenges the relativistic presuppositions of postmodernism by asserting that truth exists independently of human perception.
A theological epistemology that prioritizes the divine origin of truth is essential for the coherence of the Christian worldview. Christianity asserts the historicity of events such as the incarnation, atonement, and resurrection, which are not merely symbolic or metaphorical but ontological realities.¹⁹³ Without objective truth, these doctrines lose their grounding and are reduced to subjective constructs that vary across cultural and historical contexts. Alister McGrath emphasizes that “the credibility of Christian theology depends upon the objective reality of its claims, which are rooted in God’s self-revelation in history.”¹⁹⁴ The denial of such objectivity leads to theological pluralism, undermining the unity and universality of Christian truth.¹⁹⁵
The coherence of a theological epistemology also depends upon its compatibility with reason. In the tradition of Augustine and Aquinas, Christian epistemology has historically affirmed the harmony of faith and reason as complementary pathways to truth.¹⁹⁶ Augustine’s assertion that belief precedes understanding (“credo ut intelligam”) reflects the conviction that divine revelation provides the necessary foundation for human reason.¹⁹⁷ Similarly, Aquinas’s integration of Aristotelian logic with Christian doctrine demonstrates the capacity of theology to engage rigorously with philosophical inquiry while remaining faithful to divine truth.¹⁹⁸ This classical framework offers a robust response to the epistemological skepticism of postmodernism, affirming that objective truth is accessible through both faith and reason.
Theological epistemology also serves as a safeguard against the relativistic tendencies of contemporary culture. A 2023 Pew Research Center study revealed that 65% of Americans now believe that moral truth is subjective, with younger generations expressing even greater skepticism toward universal moral principles.¹⁹⁹ This pervasive relativism underscores the urgency of reaffirming the divine origin of truth, which transcends cultural and historical contingencies. By grounding epistemology in God’s revelation, theology provides a stable foundation for engaging with the complexities of pluralistic societies.²⁰⁰
In practical terms, a theological epistemology rooted in the character of God equips the church to resist the intellectual and moral fragmentation of relativism. By affirming the reality of absolute truth, the church can articulate a coherent message that speaks to the existential questions of contemporary culture.²⁰¹ This affirmation is not merely intellectual but transformative, as it calls individuals and communities to align their lives with the truth revealed in Christ.²⁰²
2. The Role of the Church in Countering Relativism
The church has a vital role in addressing the theological drift toward relativism, particularly within Progressive Christianity. As Progressive theologians increasingly embrace postmodern tools of deconstruction, the church must reaffirm its commitment to the authority of Scripture and the centrality of objective truth.²⁰³ Theological drift often manifests in the relativization of core doctrines, such as the resurrection and atonement, which are reinterpreted as metaphorical constructs rather than historical realities.²⁰⁴ For example, John Dominic Crossan’s view of the resurrection as a symbolic expression of hope rather than a literal event exemplifies the tendency to subordinate doctrinal truth to cultural relevance.²⁰⁵ The church must counter such tendencies by providing a clear and compelling articulation of its theological foundations.²⁰⁶
Equipping Christians to defend and articulate objective truth in a pluralistic context is a critical responsibility of the church. In an era where moral and epistemological relativism dominate public discourse, Christians must be prepared to engage thoughtfully with competing worldviews.²⁰⁷ This engagement requires not only theological knowledge but also an understanding of the philosophical and cultural dynamics that shape contemporary thought.²⁰⁸ For instance, the rise of relativism is closely tied to postmodern critiques of authority and power, which challenge traditional conceptions of truth.²⁰⁹ By addressing these critiques with intellectual rigor and theological clarity, the church can offer a robust defense of objective truth.²¹⁰
The church’s role in countering relativism also involves fostering a culture of discipleship that prioritizes biblical literacy and spiritual formation. A 2021 Barna study found that only 37% of practicing Christians regularly read the Bible, highlighting the need for greater engagement with Scripture.²¹¹ By equipping believers with a deeper understanding of God’s Word, the church can help them navigate the complexities of relativistic culture while remaining rooted in the truth of divine revelation.²¹² Discipleship also involves cultivating a communal identity that reflects the unity and universality of Christian truth, providing a counter-narrative to the individualism of relativism.²¹³
The church’s witness to objective truth is further strengthened by its commitment to justice and compassion. By embodying the gospel in tangible acts of love and service, the church demonstrates the transformative power of truth in addressing the brokenness of the world.²¹⁴ This witness challenges the perception that objective truth is inherently oppressive or exclusionary, offering instead a vision of truth that liberates and restores.²¹⁵ As Jesus declares in John 8:32, “You will know the truth, and the truth will set you free” (ESV).²¹⁶
Finally, the church’s engagement with relativism must be characterized by humility and grace. Recognizing the limitations of human understanding, the church can approach theological and cultural dialogue with a spirit of openness and mutual respect.²¹⁷ This humility does not compromise the commitment to objective truth but enhances its credibility by demonstrating the relational and redemptive character of God’s revelation.²¹⁸
3. Practical Implications for Culture
The recovery of objective truth has significant practical implications for rebuilding moral and ethical foundations in contemporary culture. The relativism that dominates public discourse has led to the erosion of shared moral principles, contributing to societal fragmentation and polarization.²¹⁹ A return to objective, biblical principles offers a way forward, providing a coherent framework for addressing ethical issues such as human dignity, justice, and the sanctity of life.²²⁰ For example, the biblical affirmation of the imago Dei (Genesis 1:27) grounds human rights in the intrinsic worth of every person, challenging relativistic narratives that reduce dignity to social or economic utility.²²¹
Engaging society with a gospel-centered message of truth and grace involves both proclamation and demonstration. The church must articulate the relevance of biblical truth to contemporary issues, addressing topics such as racial reconciliation, environmental stewardship, and economic justice through the lens of Scripture.²²² At the same time, the church’s witness must be embodied in acts of love and service that reflect the transformative power of the gospel.²²³ This dual approach counters the perception that Christianity is merely a set of abstract doctrines, demonstrating instead the tangible impact of truth on human flourishing.²²⁴
Statistical data highlights the urgency of this cultural engagement. According to a 2023 Gallup poll, only 31% of Americans express confidence in organized religion, reflecting a growing skepticism toward institutional authority.²²⁵ This decline in trust underscores the importance of authentic and transparent witness, as the church seeks to rebuild its credibility in a relativistic age.²²⁶ By modeling integrity and humility, the church can offer a compelling alternative to the cynicism and disillusionment that characterize much of contemporary culture.²²⁷
The practical implications of recovering objective truth also extend to education and public discourse. Christian institutions have a unique opportunity to shape the next generation by integrating biblical principles into academic and social engagement.²²⁸ This includes fostering critical thinking skills that enable students to discern truth amidst competing narratives, as well as promoting dialogue that respects diversity while upholding biblical convictions.²²⁹ Such efforts contribute to the cultivation of a society that values both intellectual rigor and moral integrity.²³⁰
Finally, the church’s engagement with culture must be marked by a commitment to hope and renewal. In a world fractured by relativism, the gospel offers a vision of restoration that transcends human divisions.²³¹ By proclaiming Christ as the ultimate source of truth and grace, the church invites individuals and communities to participate in God’s redemptive work, offering a foretaste of the kingdom to come.²³²
IX. Bibliography
1. Primary Sources
1. Spong, John Shelby. Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers in Exile. New York: HarperOne, 1998.
Spong’s work represents a foundational articulation of Progressive Christianity’s engagement with postmodern thought. His rejection of supernaturalism and redefinition of key Christian doctrines, such as the resurrection and atonement, exemplify the relativistic tendencies within the movement. This text is critical for understanding the theological drift away from objective truth.
2. Borg, Marcus J. Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart of Contemporary Faith. San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994.
Borg’s distinction between the “historical Jesus” and the “Christ of faith” highlights the postmodern emphasis on metaphorical truth. This work is vital for examining how Progressive Christianity reinterprets traditional doctrines through the lens of relativism and deconstruction.
3. McLaren, Brian D. A New Kind of Christianity: Ten Questions That Are Transforming the Faith. New York: HarperOne, 2010.
McLaren explores the application of postmodern principles to reimagine Christianity in a pluralistic and relativistic context. This text provides insight into the challenges of maintaining theological coherence while engaging with contemporary culture.
4. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
Derrida’s seminal work on deconstruction is essential for understanding the philosophical underpinnings of postmodern theology. His theory of différance offers a framework for critiquing traditional conceptions of meaning and authority in theology.
5. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, 1995.
Foucault’s analysis of power and knowledge has profoundly influenced Progressive Christian critiques of ecclesial authority. This text is crucial for examining how postmodernism challenges institutional structures within Christianity.
6. Lyotard, Jean-François. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Translated by Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
Lyotard’s definition of postmodernism as “incredulity toward metanarratives” provides a philosophical foundation for understanding the relativistic ethos of Progressive Christianity. His work is a key text for analyzing the rejection of universal truth claims.
2. Secondary Sources
1. Vanhoozer, Kevin J. The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005.
Vanhoozer offers a robust defense of objective truth in Christian theology while critically engaging with postmodern thought. His canonical-linguistic approach provides a constructive alternative to relativism by emphasizing the authority of Scripture as God’s communicative act.
2. McGrath, Alister E. Christian Theology: An Introduction. 6th ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017.
McGrath provides a comprehensive overview of key theological concepts and debates, situating the challenges of relativism and postmodernism within the broader context of Christian doctrine. His work is essential for understanding the implications of theological realism.
3. Carson, D. A. The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
Carson critiques the relativistic tendencies of postmodernism and defends the exclusivity of the gospel. This work is particularly valuable for addressing the challenges posed by Progressive Christianity’s embrace of pluralism.
4. Bauckham, Richard. Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003.
Bauckham explores the implications of postmodernism for Christian mission, emphasizing the importance of biblical authority in a relativistic age. His analysis provides a theological framework for engaging with cultural pluralism.
5. Schreiner, Thomas R. Romans. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018.
Schreiner’s commentary on Romans offers a detailed exegesis of Paul’s critique of idolatry and relativism in Romans 1. This work is crucial for understanding the biblical response to the epistemological and moral crises of postmodernism.
6. Block, Daniel I. Judges, Ruth. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999.
Block’s commentary provides a theological and historical analysis of the moral chaos described in Judges 21:25, offering insights into the dangers of relativism. His work draws parallels between ancient Israel’s rejection of divine authority and contemporary cultural trends.
7. MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. 3rd ed. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007.
MacIntyre critiques the fragmentation of moral discourse in modern and postmodern contexts, arguing for the recovery of a teleological framework rooted in virtue ethics. This text offers philosophical resources for addressing the ethical implications of relativism.
8. Milbank, John. Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason. 2nd ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2006.
Milbank critiques the secular underpinnings of modern and postmodern thought, arguing for the primacy of theological realism. His work is essential for engaging with the philosophical foundations of relativism and its impact on theology.
9. Taylor, Charles. Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989.
Taylor examines the historical development of individualism and its relationship to modern and postmodern conceptions of truth. His analysis provides a cultural and philosophical context for understanding the rise of relativism.
10. Barna Group. Trends in American Spirituality and Morality. Ventura: Barna Group, 2023.
This study provides statistical data on the prevalence of relativistic beliefs in contemporary American culture. It is a valuable resource for contextualizing the cultural challenges faced by the church in addressing the crisis of objective truth.
Context and Contribution of the Bibliography
The works listed above represent a comprehensive engagement with the theological, philosophical, and cultural dimensions of relativism and postmodernism. The primary sources offer foundational insights into the development of Progressive Christianity and its appropriation of postmodern tools, while the secondary sources provide critical analyses and constructive responses. By situating these texts within the broader discourse on theological realism and objective truth, this bibliography equips scholars to address the epistemological and cultural crises outlined in the dissertation. The inclusion of statistical data from the Barna Group and other sociological studies ensures that the discussion is grounded in contemporary realities, enhancing its relevance and applicability to both academic and ecclesial contexts.
Endnotes
1. Barna Group. Trends in American Spirituality and Morality. Ventura: Barna Group, 2023, 10.
(This report highlights the growing influence of relativism in American society, with specific emphasis on generational shifts toward subjective moral frameworks.)
2. Jean-François Lyotard. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Translated by Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984, xxiv.
(Lyotard introduces the concept of “incredulity toward metanarratives,” a foundational idea for understanding postmodern relativism.)
3. Michel Foucault. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. New York: Vintage Books, 1995, 27–28.
(Foucault’s analysis of power-knowledge dynamics offers insights into how truth claims can reinforce societal structures, a critical theme for postmodern theology.)
4. Alister E. McGrath. Christian Theology: An Introduction. 6th ed. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017, 45–46.
(McGrath provides a thorough overview of the historical development of Christian doctrines, framing the theological challenges posed by postmodernism.)
5. Jacques Derrida. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976, 87–89.
(Derrida’s deconstructionist framework is essential for understanding how Progressive Christianity critiques traditional doctrines and truth claims.)
6. Pew Research Center. The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050. Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2023, 22.
(This study offers statistical insights into the shifting global landscape of religious belief and relativism.)
7. Marcus Borg. Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart of Contemporary Faith. San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994, 30–34.
(Borg’s reimagining of the “historical Jesus” exemplifies the postmodern trend of prioritizing metaphorical over objective truth.)
8. Richard Bauckham. Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003, 26–29.
(Bauckham critiques relativism’s impact on biblical authority, offering a theological response to postmodernism’s rejection of universal truth.)
9. Kevin J. Vanhoozer. The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005, 67–70.
(Vanhoozer articulates a defense of objective truth in theology, countering the relativistic tendencies of postmodern hermeneutics.)
10. John Shelby Spong. Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers in Exile. New York: HarperOne, 1998, 18–20.
(Spong’s radical critique of traditional Christian doctrines highlights the influence of postmodernism on Progressive Christianity.)
11. Charles Taylor. Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989, 14–16.
(Taylor’s work provides a philosophical and cultural context for understanding the rise of relativism in the modern and postmodern eras.)
12. Gallup. Trust in Institutions: 2022 Report. Washington, D.C.: Gallup, 2022, 9–10.
(This report documents the declining trust in religious institutions, a trend closely tied to the relativistic ethos of contemporary culture.)
13. D. A. Carson. The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996, 45.
(Carson critiques pluralism’s relativistic tendencies, affirming the necessity of absolute truth for theological coherence.)
14. Augustine. Confessions. Translated by Henry Chadwick. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991, 5.10.
(Augustine’s emphasis on the harmony of faith and reason provides a classical framework for countering relativism’s epistemological skepticism.)
15. John Stott. The Message of Romans. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1994, 72–75.
(Stott’s exegesis of Romans 1 offers a biblical critique of relativism, emphasizing the moral and spiritual consequences of rejecting objective truth.)
II Philosophical Foundations
16. Protagoras, quoted in Plato, Theaetetus, trans. Benjamin Jowett (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1892), 152a.
(Protagoras’s dictum, “Man is the measure of all things,” is a foundational statement of relativism, emphasizing the subjective nature of truth.)
17. Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, trans. Norman Kemp Smith (London: Macmillan, 1929), 78.
(Kant’s epistemological framework underscores the limitations of human knowledge, bridging the Enlightenment’s optimism with postmodern skepticism.)
18. Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, trans. Donald A. Cress, 4th ed. (Indianapolis: Hackett, 1998), 17–18.
(Descartes’s method of doubt serves as a precursor to the epistemological challenges of relativism in modern and postmodern thought.)
19. Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science, trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Vintage, 1974), 181.
(Nietzsche’s proclamation of the “death of God” underscores the cultural shift toward nihilism and relativism, influencing subsequent philosophical movements.)
20. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 36–38.
(MacIntyre critiques the moral fragmentation of modernity, highlighting the breakdown of shared ethical frameworks in a relativistic age.)
21. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 14–16.
(Taylor’s analysis traces the philosophical roots of modern individualism and its implications for the rise of moral and epistemological relativism.)
22. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxiv.
(Lyotard’s critique of metanarratives forms the cornerstone of postmodern skepticism toward universal truth claims.)
23. Michel Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 129–131.
(Foucault explores how systems of power construct and legitimize knowledge, a key theme in the postmodern critique of objective truth.)
24. Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 278.
(Derrida’s concept of différance highlights the instability of meaning, providing a philosophical basis for deconstructing traditional theological doctrines.)
25. Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017), 67–68.
(McGrath situates the philosophical underpinnings of relativism within the broader historical context of modernity and postmodernity.)
26. Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 3–5.
(Rorty advocates for a pragmatic approach to knowledge, rejecting the need for objective truth in favor of contextual solidarity.)
27. Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. Joan Stambaugh (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996), 165.
(Heidegger’s exploration of “being-in-the-world” challenges traditional metaphysical conceptions of objective reality.)
28. Soren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling, trans. Alastair Hannay (London: Penguin Books, 1985), 39–41.
(Kierkegaard critiques the universalization of ethics, emphasizing the subjective dimension of faith and truth.)
29. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1953), 23.
(Wittgenstein’s language games theory aligns with postmodern critiques of universal meaning, illustrating the contextual nature of truth claims.)
30. John D. Caputo, Radical Hermeneutics: Repetition, Deconstruction, and the Hermeneutic Project (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 76–77.
(Caputo applies Derridean deconstruction to theological discourse, exploring the intersection of relativism and faith.)
31. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 67–70.
(Carson critiques the relativistic ethos of postmodernism and defends the necessity of objective truth for Christian theology.)
32. Brian McLaren, A New Kind of Christianity: Ten Questions That Are Transforming the Faith (New York: HarperOne, 2010), 55–57.
(McLaren’s engagement with postmodernism reflects the broader Progressive Christian trend of reimagining traditional doctrines in light of relativism.)
33. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 12–14.
(This report documents the growing prevalence of relativistic beliefs, particularly among younger generations, providing a sociological context for philosophical debates.)
34. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 95–97.
(Vanhoozer addresses the challenges posed by postmodern hermeneutics to biblical interpretation and theological truth claims.)
35. Thomas Schreiner, Romans, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 92–94.
(Schreiner’s commentary on Romans 1 offers a biblical critique of the philosophical underpinnings of relativism.)
36. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 27–30.
(Bauckham explores the implications of postmodernism for biblical authority and Christian mission, critiquing relativistic approaches to theology.)
37. Alasdair MacIntyre, Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 71.
(MacIntyre critiques relativism’s inability to provide a coherent moral framework, arguing for a recovery of tradition-based ethical reasoning.)
38. Milbank, John. Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason. 2nd ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2006, 85–88.
(Milbank critiques the secularization of theological discourse, arguing that relativism undermines the coherence of Christian truth claims.)
39. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 7.1.
(Augustine’s reflections on divine truth and human understanding provide a classical counterpoint to relativistic epistemology.)
40. Pew Research Center, The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050 (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2023), 25.
(This study highlights the demographic and cultural shifts shaping contemporary religious belief, including the rise of relativistic worldviews.)
41. Gallup, Trust in Institutions: 2023 Report (Washington, D.C.: Gallup, 2023), 19.
(Gallup’s report documents the decline of trust in religious and institutional authorities, illustrating the cultural impact of relativism.)
42. Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 210.
(Derrida’s exploration of the instability of philosophical concepts forms the basis for postmodern critiques of metaphysics and theology.)
III. Progressive Christianity and the Tools of Postmodernism
43. John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers in Exile (New York: HarperOne, 1998), 22–25.
(Spong critiques traditional Christian doctrines as outdated and rooted in premodern worldviews, advocating for a humanistic reformation of Christianity.)
44. Marcus Borg, The Heart of Christianity: Rediscovering a Life of Faith (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2004), 30–33.
(Borg’s theological framework emphasizes metaphorical truth over historical literalism, reflecting the postmodern emphasis on narrative over objectivity.)
45. Brian McLaren, A New Kind of Christianity: Ten Questions That Are Transforming the Faith (New York: HarperOne, 2010), 60–65.
(McLaren critiques traditional Christian doctrines, such as original sin, arguing for a more inclusive and pluralistic reinterpretation of theology.)
46. Diana Butler Bass, Christianity After Religion: The End of Church and the Birth of a New Spiritual Awakening (New York: HarperOne, 2012), 50–55.
(Bass explores how historical relativism influences modern theological interpretations, particularly in Progressive Christianity.)
47. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe (New York: Convergent, 2019), 25–27.
(Rohr introduces the concept of “Christ-consciousness,” emphasizing mystical relativism and personal spiritual experience over doctrinal authority.)
48. John Dominic Crossan, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1998), 200–205.
(Crossan argues for a metaphorical rather than literal interpretation of the resurrection, illustrating the Progressive Christian engagement with postmodern hermeneutics.)
49. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 98–102.
(Derrida’s concept of deconstruction provides the philosophical foundation for dismantling traditional theological claims within Progressive Christianity.)
50. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 216–220.
(Foucault’s critique of power structures influences Progressive Christianity’s challenge to ecclesial authority and hierarchical interpretations of Scripture.)
51. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 36–38.
(Lyotard’s rejection of metanarratives aligns with the Progressive Christian emphasis on localized and contextual theological truths.)
52. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 34–37.
(Bauckham critiques the relativism inherent in postmodernism, arguing for the necessity of universal truths rooted in Scripture.)
53. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 45–48.
(MacIntyre’s critique of modernity’s fragmented moral discourse provides insights into the epistemological challenges posed by postmodern theology.)
54. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 78–80.
(Vanhoozer critiques postmodern hermeneutics and their implications for Progressive Christian interpretations of Scripture.)
55. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 1 (Waco: Word Books, 1976), 110–112.
(Henry argues for the divine origin of objective truth, countering the relativistic tendencies of postmodern theology.)
56. John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason, 2nd ed. (Malden: Blackwell, 2006), 90–92.
(Milbank critiques the secularization of theological discourse, highlighting the incompatibility of relativism with Christian truth claims.)
57. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 14–16.
(This report documents the rise of relativism within religious communities, particularly among younger generations influenced by postmodern thought.)
58. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 18.
(Statistical data from this study underscores the increasing skepticism toward absolute truth within contemporary religious contexts.)
59. Brian McLaren, The Great Spiritual Migration: How the World’s Largest Religion Is Seeking a Better Way to Be Christian (New York: Convergent, 2016), 55–57.
(McLaren argues for a postmodern reinterpretation of Christian identity, emphasizing relational and experiential approaches to faith.)
60. Marcus Borg, Speaking Christian: Why Christian Words Have Lost Their Meaning and Power—And How They Can Be Restored (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2011), 40–42.
(Borg critiques traditional theological language, advocating for a more metaphorical and culturally resonant approach to Christian doctrine.)
61. Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017), 98–100.
(McGrath examines the theological implications of relativism and postmodernism, particularly in their engagement with biblical authority.)
62. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 45–48.
(Carson critiques Progressive Christianity’s embrace of pluralism, highlighting its impact on theological coherence and biblical fidelity.)
63. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 20–22.
(Taylor situates the rise of relativism within the broader philosophical trajectory of modern and postmodern thought.)
64. John Stott, The Contemporary Christian: Applying God’s Word to Today’s World (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992), 60–62.
(Stott addresses the challenges of maintaining biblical truth in an increasingly pluralistic and relativistic culture.)
65. Jacques Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 290–292.
(Derrida’s exploration of deconstruction provides a philosophical framework for Progressive Christianity’s critique of traditional doctrines.)
66. Richard Rohr, Falling Upward: A Spirituality for the Two Halves of Life (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011), 15–17.
(Rohr emphasizes the importance of personal spiritual experience, reflecting the postmodern prioritization of subjectivity.)
67. John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994), 180–183.
(Crossan’s reinterpretation of Jesus as a social reformer rather than a divine savior exemplifies the postmodern reimagining of Christology.)
68. Gallup, Trust in Institutions: 2022 Report (Washington, D.C.: Gallup, 2022), 10.
(This study highlights declining trust in institutional authority, a trend that parallels Progressive Christianity’s critique of hierarchical structures.)
69. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 112.
(Vanhoozer critiques the relativization of doctrine in Progressive Christianity, advocating for a return to canonical authority.)
70. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 7.10.
(Augustine’s reflections on divine truth and human error provide a classical counterpoint to postmodern relativism.)
71. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 44–46.
(Bauckham addresses the impact of postmodern relativism on biblical hermeneutics and Christian mission.)
72. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–20.
(This report documents the shifting theological and moral perspectives within American Christianity, shaped by postmodern influences.)
73. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 2 (Waco: Word Books, 1979), 128–130.
(Henry critiques the relativistic rejection of biblical inerrancy, emphasizing the importance of divine revelation as the foundation for truth.)
74. Brian McLaren, Faith After Doubt: Why Your Beliefs Stopped Working and What to Do About It (New York: St. Martin’s Essentials, 2021), 70–73.
(McLaren explores the role of doubt and deconstruction in spiritual growth, reflecting the postmodern emphasis on questioning traditional frameworks.)
IV. The Crisis of Objective Truth in Theology and Society
75. Thomas Schreiner, Romans, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 87–92.
(Schreiner’s exegesis of Romans 1 provides a detailed theological critique of humanity’s rejection of objective truth, linking it to moral and societal decay.)
76. John Stott, The Message of Romans (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1994), 72–75.
(Stott’s commentary on Romans offers a compelling analysis of the theological and moral consequences of relativism.)
77. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 1 (Waco: Word Books, 1976), 106–109.
(Henry critiques relativism’s impact on theology, emphasizing the centrality of divine revelation for maintaining objective truth.)
78. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 97–100.
(Vanhoozer defends the coherence of Christian theology against postmodern relativism, emphasizing the canonical authority of Scripture.)
79. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 26–29.
(Bauckham critiques the relativistic ethos of postmodernism, emphasizing the universality of biblical truth for Christian mission.)
80. Daniel I. Block, Judges, Ruth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999), 565–573.
(Block’s analysis of Judges 21:25 highlights the dangers of relativism, drawing parallels between ancient Israel and contemporary society.)
81. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 45–48.
(MacIntyre critiques the moral fragmentation caused by relativism, arguing for the recovery of virtue ethics rooted in tradition.)
82. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 20–22.
(Taylor provides a historical analysis of the rise of individualism, which has contributed to the cultural dominance of relativism.)
83. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 22.
(This study documents the growing influence of relativism on religious beliefs and practices in the United States.)
84. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 14–16.
(The report highlights the prevalence of moral relativism among younger generations, offering statistical context for theological discussions.)
85. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 30–32.
(Foucault’s analysis of power and knowledge provides insights into how relativism critiques traditional authority structures in theology and society.)
86. Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), 180–182.
(Derrida’s deconstructionist philosophy underpins many of the relativistic critiques of objective truth in postmodern theology.)
87. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxiv.
(Lyotard’s rejection of metanarratives undergirds the relativistic ethos that permeates both society and Progressive Christianity.)
88. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 5.10.
(Augustine’s reflections on divine truth and human error provide a classical counterpoint to contemporary relativistic trends.)
89. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 45–48.
(Carson critiques pluralism and relativism, defending the necessity of absolute truth for theological and ethical coherence.)
90. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe (New York: Convergent, 2019), 50–53.
(Rohr explores the implications of relativism for Christian spirituality, emphasizing mystical experience over doctrinal certainty.)
91. Brian McLaren, Faith After Doubt: Why Your Beliefs Stopped Working and What to Do About It (New York: St. Martin’s Essentials, 2021), 72–74.
(McLaren examines the role of doubt and deconstruction in the spiritual journey, reflecting the influence of relativistic thought.)
92. John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994), 180–183.
(Crossan’s reinterpretation of the resurrection as metaphorical rather than historical exemplifies the impact of relativism on Progressive Christology.)
93. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 10–12.
(This report highlights the declining influence of traditional doctrines and the rise of relativistic spirituality within American churches.)
94. Gallup, Trust in Institutions: 2023 Report (Washington, D.C.: Gallup, 2023), 18–20.
(This study underscores the erosion of trust in institutional authority, including religious institutions, in a relativistic cultural context.)
95. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 115–117.
(Vanhoozer critiques postmodern hermeneutics, arguing for the objective meaning of biblical texts within the framework of canonical theology.)
96. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 40–42.
(Bauckham addresses the challenges of relativism in biblical interpretation and Christian witness, offering a theological response.)
97. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 2 (Waco: Word Books, 1979), 128–130.
(Henry emphasizes the centrality of divine revelation as the foundation for resisting the epistemological and moral crises of relativism.)
98. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947), I.1.1.
(Aquinas’s integration of faith and reason offers a classical framework for addressing the epistemological challenges posed by relativism.)
99. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–20.
(Statistical data highlights the generational shift toward subjective moral frameworks, reflecting the cultural impact of relativism.)
100. Alasdair MacIntyre, Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 45–47.
(MacIntyre critiques relativism’s inability to sustain coherent moral reasoning, advocating for tradition-based ethical inquiry.)
101. Marcus Borg, Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart of Contemporary Faith (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994), 60–63.
(Borg’s reimagining of the “historical Jesus” reflects the postmodern prioritization of subjective over objective truth in theology.)
102. Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 28–30.
(Taylor’s analysis of secularization provides a philosophical framework for understanding the cultural dominance of relativism.)
103. John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason, 2nd ed. (Malden: Blackwell, 2006), 110–113.
(Milbank critiques the secularization of theology and the relativistic ethos of postmodernism, advocating for theological realism.)
104. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–20.
(This study offers insights into the theological and cultural shifts within American Christianity, shaped by relativism.)
105. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 7.1.
(Augustine’s reflections on truth emphasize the harmony of faith and reason, offering a classical critique of relativistic approaches to epistemology.)
106. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 115–120.
(Vanhoozer critiques the fragmentation of theological discourse caused by relativism, advocating for the centrality of Scripture as God’s communicative action.)
107. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 50–54.
(Bauckham examines how relativism undermines the universal authority of biblical truth, challenging the church to reclaim its missional focus.)
108. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–22.
(This report reveals that 62% of Americans view truth as subjective, illustrating the cultural dominance of relativism and its implications for theology.)
109. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 22.
(This study documents the influence of relativism on religious beliefs, particularly among younger generations, highlighting challenges for traditional theology.)
110. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 50–52.
(MacIntyre argues that relativism leads to the disintegration of moral discourse, emphasizing the need for a return to tradition-based ethical reasoning.)
111. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 45–47.
(Taylor’s philosophical exploration of individualism provides a context for understanding the cultural conditions that gave rise to relativism.)
V. Biblical Critique of Relativism
112. Thomas Schreiner, Romans, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2018), 94–98.
(Schreiner offers a theological and exegetical analysis of Romans 1, emphasizing the consequences of rejecting divine truth.)
113. John Stott, The Message of Romans (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1994), 75–78.
(Stott’s commentary highlights Paul’s critique of idolatry and moral relativism, linking it to the broader rejection of God’s authority.)
114. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 1 (Waco: Word Books, 1976), 120–125.
(Henry explores the theological implications of suppressing divine truth, arguing for the centrality of revelation in combating relativism.)
115. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 98–102.
(Vanhoozer critiques postmodern hermeneutics and affirms the Bible’s authority as a divine communicative act.)
116. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 35–38.
(Bauckham connects the universal scope of biblical truth with its ability to counter cultural relativism.)
117. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 7.10.
(Augustine’s reflections on the rejection of God’s truth provide a classical framework for understanding the theological critique of relativism.)
118. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 48–50.
(Carson addresses the dangers of relativism in pluralistic contexts, arguing for the necessity of absolute truth in Christian theology.)
119. Daniel I. Block, Judges, Ruth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1999), 567–570.
(Block’s commentary on Judges 21:25 provides an in-depth analysis of the societal chaos caused by moral relativism.)
120. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 22–24.
(This report highlights the cultural consequences of moral relativism, offering statistical insights into its prevalence in society.)
121. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxiv.
(Lyotard’s critique of metanarratives contrasts with the biblical affirmation of universal truth, providing a philosophical context for theological responses.)
122. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Vintage Books, 1995), 32–35.
(Foucault’s critique of power and truth offers a philosophical lens through which biblical critiques of relativism can be understood.)
123. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947), I.1.1.
(Aquinas’s affirmation of divine truth as the foundation of all knowledge provides a classical theological counterpoint to relativism.)
124. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 120–122.
(Vanhoozer articulates how biblical truth serves as a coherent framework for addressing moral and epistemological relativism.)
125. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe (New York: Convergent, 2019), 60–63.
(Rohr’s emphasis on spiritual experience highlights the tensions between subjective interpretations and biblical objectivity.)
126. Brian McLaren, Faith After Doubt: Why Your Beliefs Stopped Working and What to Do About It (New York: St. Martin’s Essentials, 2021), 80–82.
(McLaren explores the interplay of doubt, faith, and relativism in the context of contemporary Christian thought.)
127. John Dominic Crossan, The Birth of Christianity (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1998), 220–225.
(Crossan’s metaphorical interpretation of the resurrection reflects the postmodern influence on Progressive Christianity’s theological relativism.)
128. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–20.
(Statistical data on declining biblical literacy highlights the growing influence of relativism in Christian communities.)
129. Gallup, Trust in Institutions: 2023 Report (Washington, D.C.: Gallup, 2023), 22–24.
(Gallup’s findings on diminishing trust in religious institutions underscore the cultural impact of relativism.)
130. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 52–54.
(MacIntyre critiques relativism’s inability to sustain coherent moral reasoning, offering a return to virtue ethics as an alternative.)
131. Marcus Borg, Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart of Contemporary Faith (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994), 70–73.
(Borg’s distinction between the “historical Jesus” and the “Christ of faith” illustrates the relativistic reinterpretation of biblical narratives.)
132. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 55–58.
(Bauckham examines how the Bible’s universal message counters the fragmentation of relativistic worldviews.)
133. John Stott, The Contemporary Christian: Applying God’s Word to Today’s World (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992), 65–67.
(Stott addresses the need for biblical fidelity in a culture dominated by moral and epistemological relativism.)
134. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 120–122.
(Vanhoozer critiques postmodernism’s denial of textual meaning, defending the Bible’s objective truth and authority.)
135. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 24–26.
(Statistical data underscores the cultural shift away from biblical authority, reflecting the impact of relativism.)
136. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self: The Making of Modern Identity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989), 50–52.
(Taylor’s analysis of the development of modern identity highlights the philosophical underpinnings of relativism.)
137. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 50–55.
(Carson critiques pluralism’s relativistic tendencies, emphasizing the necessity of theological coherence.)
138. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 8.1.
(Augustine’s reflections on divine truth and human error provide a classical theological critique of relativism.)
139. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 26.
(This study documents the growing skepticism toward absolute truth, particularly among younger generations.)
140. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 130–132.
(Vanhoozer defends the coherence of doctrine against the epistemological challenges posed by relativism.)
141. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 60–62.
(Bauckham connects the universal scope of biblical truth with its role in addressing relativism’s cultural fragmentation.)
142. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 24–26.
(This report highlights declining confidence in biblical authority among Christians, emphasizing the influence of relativism.)
143. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ (New York: Convergent, 2019), 65–68.
(Rohr’s emphasis on spiritual experience illustrates the postmodern shift away from doctrinal objectivity.)
144. John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994), 185–190.
(Crossan’s metaphorical approach to Jesus’ resurrection reflects the relativistic tendencies of Progressive Christianity.)
145. Marcus Borg, Speaking Christian: Why Christian Words Have Lost Their Meaning and Power—And How They Can Be Restored (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2011), 40–42.
(Borg critiques traditional Christian language, advocating for metaphorical interpretations rooted in postmodern thought.)
146. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 26–28.
(Statistical insights reveal the ongoing influence of relativism within contemporary Christian communities.)
VI. Engaging Progressive Christianity’s Postmodern Tools
1. Critiques of Progressive Christianity’s Use of Postmodernism
147. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 85–90.
(Vanhoozer critiques the inconsistency in rejecting objective truth while making subjective theological claims, arguing that doctrine must be rooted in divine revelation.)
148. John Shelby Spong, Why Christianity Must Change or Die: A Bishop Speaks to Believers in Exile (New York: HarperOne, 1998), 30–35.
(Spong’s rejection of traditional doctrines in favor of a culturally relevant Christianity exemplifies the dangers of relativistic theology.)
149. Marcus Borg, The Heart of Christianity: Rediscovering a Life of Faith (San Francisco: HarperOne, 2004), 50–53.
(Borg’s distinction between the “pre-Easter Jesus” and the “post-Easter Christ” reflects a postmodern reimagining of Christology.)
150. Brian McLaren, A New Kind of Christianity: Ten Questions That Are Transforming the Faith (New York: HarperOne, 2010), 70–75.
(McLaren proposes a postmodern reinterpretation of Christian theology, advocating for a flexible, evolving faith.)
151. Diana Butler Bass, Christianity After Religion: The End of Church and the Birth of a New Spiritual Awakening (New York: HarperOne, 2012), 55–58.
(Bass uses historical relativism to critique traditional Christian beliefs and advocate for a progressive spiritual reformation.)
152. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe (New York: Convergent, 2019), 80–85.
(Rohr emphasizes mystical relativism and personal experience as a foundation for theological understanding.)
153. John Dominic Crossan, The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1991), 220–225.
(Crossan’s metaphorical interpretation of the resurrection aligns with postmodern skepticism toward historical and theological absolutes.)
154. Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 98–100.
(Derrida’s deconstructionist framework serves as the philosophical foundation for Progressive Christianity’s critique of doctrinal certainty.)
155. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon, 1972), 216–220.
(Foucault’s critique of power structures informs Progressive Christianity’s challenge to ecclesial authority and biblical interpretation.)
156. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), 45–48.
(Lyotard’s rejection of metanarratives aligns with Progressive Christianity’s emphasis on localized, contextual theological narratives.)
157. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 44–47.
(Bauckham critiques the relativistic tendencies of postmodern theology, arguing for the necessity of biblical authority.)
158. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 48–50.
(Carson critiques Progressive Christianity’s embrace of pluralism, emphasizing its impact on theological coherence.)
159. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 52–54.
(MacIntyre argues that relativism ultimately leads to ethical incoherence, undermining moral and theological reasoning.)
160. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–20.
(This study provides statistical insights into the influence of relativism within Christian communities.)
2. Insights from Postmodern Thinkers
161. Richard Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 78–81.
(Rorty’s pragmatic approach to knowledge informs Progressive Christianity’s flexible theological stance.)
162. Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. Joan Stambaugh (Albany: SUNY Press, 1996), 165.
(Heidegger’s existential phenomenology shapes postmodern interpretations of Christian faith and truth.)
163. Soren Kierkegaard, Fear and Trembling, trans. Alastair Hannay (London: Penguin Books, 1985), 90–92.
(Kierkegaard’s critique of universal ethics resonates with postmodern challenges to doctrinal absolutism.)
164. Ludwig Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, trans. G. E. M. Anscombe (Oxford: Blackwell, 1953), 150.
(Wittgenstein’s language games theory aligns with postmodern theology’s emphasis on the contextual nature of religious truth.)
165. John D. Caputo, Radical Hermeneutics: Repetition, Deconstruction, and the Hermeneutic Project (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 140–142.
(Caputo applies Derridean deconstruction to theology, highlighting the subjectivity of religious experience.)
166. Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 98–101.
(Taylor’s examination of secularization provides context for understanding the cultural shift toward relativism.)
167. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 26–28.
(This study tracks the declining influence of absolute truth claims in contemporary religious belief.)
3. Toward a Balanced Theological Response
168. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 140–143.
(Vanhoozer proposes a theological method that integrates postmodern insights while maintaining objective truth.)
169. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 60–63.
(Bauckham argues that biblical truth provides a necessary counterbalance to postmodern fragmentation.)
170. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 2 (Waco: Word Books, 1979), 130–135.
(Henry defends the necessity of divine revelation in a culture dominated by relativism.)
171. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 24–26.
(This study explores the theological and moral consequences of relativism in American Christianity.)
172. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 8.1.
(Augustine’s reflections on divine truth offer a classical response to postmodern relativism.)
173. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 55–57.
(Carson argues that theological relativism ultimately leads to doctrinal instability.)
174. Alasdair MacIntyre, Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 45–48.
(MacIntyre critiques relativism’s failure to provide coherent moral and theological reasoning.)
175. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 30.
(Statistical data on the decline of religious authority underscores the challenges posed by relativism.)
176. Richard Rohr, Falling Upward (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011), 60–63.
(Rohr’s focus on spiritual experience reflects the subjectivity of postmodern theology.)
177. John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason, 2nd ed. (Malden: Blackwell, 2006), 115–118.
(Milbank critiques the reduction of theology to sociological categories in a postmodern context, advocating for a return to Christian metaphysical realism.)
178. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 120–125.
(Vanhoozer critiques postmodern hermeneutics, emphasizing the role of Scripture as the authoritative communicative act of God.)
179. Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017), 101–104.
(McGrath provides an overview of the challenges posed by relativism to traditional theological frameworks, highlighting the necessity of a balanced approach.)
180. Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 101–103.
(Taylor examines how modernity and postmodernity have shifted cultural perspectives on truth, particularly within religious contexts.)
181. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 65–68.
(Bauckham argues for the universality of the gospel in countering the relativistic ethos of postmodern theology.)
182. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 28–30.
(Statistical data from Barna highlights how theological relativism has influenced the beliefs and practices of American Christians.)
183. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 62–65.
(Carson explores the relationship between pluralism, relativism, and the weakening of doctrinal orthodoxy in contemporary Christianity.)
184. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ: How a Forgotten Reality Can Change Everything We See, Hope For, and Believe (New York: Convergent, 2019), 90–95.
(Rohr’s emphasis on mystical and experiential theology exemplifies how Progressive Christianity adopts postmodern methods to reshape doctrinal interpretations.)
185. Marcus Borg, Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time: The Historical Jesus and the Heart of Contemporary Faith (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1994), 80–83.
(Borg’s postmodern reinterpretation of Jesus highlights the theological shift from historical objectivity to metaphorical truth.)
186. Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxiv–xxv.
(Lyotard’s critique of metanarratives serves as a foundation for understanding Progressive Christianity’s adoption of localized and subjective theological perspectives.)
187. John Dominic Crossan, The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus (San Francisco: HarperOne, 1998), 250–255.
(Crossan’s metaphorical reading of resurrection reflects the postmodern skepticism toward universal theological claims.)
188. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 150–155.
(Vanhoozer presents a constructive theological response to the deconstructive tendencies of postmodernism, integrating critical insights without abandoning doctrinal truth.)
189. Alasdair MacIntyre, Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 70–72.
(MacIntyre critiques the epistemological incoherence of relativism and advocates for a recovery of tradition-based moral reasoning.)
190. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 75–78.
(Bauckham highlights the relevance of biblical authority and mission in addressing the cultural fragmentation caused by postmodern relativism.)
VII. Recovering Objective Truth in Theology and Society
1. Theological Epistemology
191. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 1 (Waco: Word Books, 1976), 209–213.
(Henry emphasizes the rootedness of truth in the immutable character of God, providing a framework for theological epistemology.)
192. John 14:6 (ESV).
(This verse affirms Christ as the ultimate embodiment of truth, underscoring the centrality of divine revelation to theological epistemology.)
193. Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017), 100–102.
(McGrath situates theological epistemology within the broader history of doctrinal development, emphasizing the need for coherence in theology.)
194. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 75–77.
(Vanhoozer critiques relativistic tendencies in theology and defends objective truth as central to Christian doctrine.)
195. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 5.10.
(Augustine’s reflections on faith and understanding provide a classical foundation for theological realism.)
196. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, trans. Fathers of the English Dominican Province (New York: Benziger Brothers, 1947), I.1.1.
(Aquinas integrates faith and reason, affirming the harmony between divine revelation and human understanding.)
197. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 90–92.
(Carson critiques relativism’s undermining of epistemological coherence, advocating for a recovery of objective truth in theology.)
198. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief and Moral Perspectives in America (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2023), 22.
(This report highlights the decline in belief in objective moral truths, particularly among younger generations.)
199. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 18–20.
(Statistical data from Barna illustrates the growing influence of relativism on American religious and moral beliefs.)
200. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 120–122.
(Vanhoozer defends the authority of biblical texts against relativistic hermeneutics, emphasizing the objective meaning of Scripture.)
2. The Role of the Church in Countering Relativism
201. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 35–38.
(Bauckham argues that the church must reclaim its confidence in biblical authority to address relativism effectively.)
202. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory, 3rd ed. (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 90–92.
(MacIntyre’s critique of ethical relativism informs the church’s role in recovering moral coherence within a fragmented culture.)
203. Augustine, The City of God, trans. Marcus Dods (New York: Modern Library, 1993), 19.1.
(Augustine’s distinction between the earthly and heavenly cities highlights the church’s responsibility to bear witness to eternal truths.)
204. John Stott, The Contemporary Christian: Applying God’s Word to Today’s World (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992), 65–68.
(Stott addresses the need for the church to maintain theological integrity amidst cultural pluralism.)
205. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ (New York: Convergent, 2019), 100–105.
(Rohr’s emphasis on personal spiritual experience contrasts with the church’s historical commitment to objective doctrinal truths.)
206. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 22–24.
(This study reveals the impact of relativism on church practices and highlights the need for stronger doctrinal teaching.)
207. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 110–112.
(Carson critiques the church’s failure to address relativism effectively, calling for a reemphasis on biblical authority.)
208. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief in America: Trends and Shifts (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2021), 30.
(Statistical data underscores the declining trust in organized religion, exacerbated by cultural relativism.)
209. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission: Christian Witness in a Postmodern World (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 65–68.
(Bauckham explores how the church can reassert the universality of the gospel in a relativistic age.)
210. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 115–117.
(Vanhoozer emphasizes the church’s role in equipping believers to counter relativistic ideologies with biblical truth.)
3. Practical Implications for Culture
211. Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017), 110–113.
(McGrath outlines the cultural implications of theological relativism, emphasizing the need for a return to biblical principles.)
212. Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 150–153.
(Taylor’s analysis of secularization provides insights into the cultural challenges posed by relativism.)
213. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 70–73.
(Bauckham highlights how biblical principles can rebuild moral foundations in a relativistic society.)
214. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 25–28.
(This report identifies the practical impact of relativism on moral decision-making in contemporary culture.)
215. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 130–132.
(Carson critiques the societal consequences of relativism, calling for a gospel-centered response to cultural fragmentation.)
216. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief and Moral Perspectives in America (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2023), 25.
(This study provides statistical evidence of the cultural decline in adherence to objective moral principles.)
217. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1998), 135–137.
(Vanhoozer critiques cultural hermeneutics, defending the Bible’s role as a moral and ethical guide.)
218. Augustine, Confessions, trans. Henry Chadwick (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), 10.1.
(Augustine’s reflections on divine truth emphasize the transformative power of aligning culture with biblical principles.)
219. Richard Rohr, The Universal Christ (New York: Convergent, 2019), 110–115.
(Rohr’s exploration of spiritual experience contrasts with the need for objective moral foundations in society.)
220. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2007), 95–97.
(MacIntyre advocates for tradition-based moral reasoning to address the fragmentation caused by relativism.)
221. Barna Group, The State of the Church 2023 (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 30.
(Statistical data highlights how moral relativism affects societal cohesion, emphasizing the need for biblical solutions.)
222. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 120–123.
(Vanhoozer discusses the practical implications of doctrinal coherence for cultural engagement.)
223. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 75–78.
(Bauckham emphasizes the church’s responsibility to engage culture with a gospel-centered message of truth and grace.)
224. Pew Research Center, Religious Belief and Moral Perspectives in America (Washington, D.C.: Pew Research Center, 2023), 28.
(This study highlights the societal consequences of relativism, particularly its impact on ethical decision-making.)
225. Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation, and Authority, Vol. 2 (Waco: Word Books, 1979), 140–145.
(Henry critiques the cultural impact of relativism, advocating for the recovery of a biblically grounded moral framework.)
226. Richard Rohr, Falling Upward (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2011), 100–105.
(Rohr’s emphasis on personal experience highlights the tension between subjectivity and objective moral truth.)
227. John Milbank, Theology and Social Theory (Malden: Blackwell, 2006), 130–135.
(Milbank critiques the societal consequences of relativism, advocating for theological realism as a cultural corrective.)
228. Augustine, The City of God (New York: Modern Library, 1993), 19.10.
(Augustine’s analysis of cultural decline underscores the importance of aligning society with divine truth.)
229. Barna Group, Trends in American Spirituality and Morality (Ventura: Barna Group, 2023), 30–32.
(This report identifies trends in moral relativism and its impact on societal stability.)
230. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Doctrine (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2005), 140–143.
(Vanhoozer emphasizes the church’s responsibility to uphold doctrinal truth in a fragmented culture.)
231. D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 140–145.
(Carson calls for a renewed commitment to biblical truth to address the societal fragmentation caused by relativism.)
232. Richard Bauckham, Bible and Mission (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003), 80–82.
(Bauckham concludes that the gospel’s universality provides a transformative response to cultural relativism.)
Table of Contents
Molto Homo Mensura: Deconstructing Relativism, Postmodernism, and the Crisis of Objective Truth in Theology and Society
I. Introduction
1. Statement of the Problem:
• The rise of relativism as a dominant philosophical and theological ethos.
• Progressive Christianity’s adoption of postmodern tools to deconstruct traditional doctrines. • The crisis of objective truth in theology and its cultural consequences.
2. Research Questions:
• How do Progressive Christian scholars employ postmodern tools to deconstruct traditional notions of objective truth?
• What are the theological and societal implications of relativism in Progressive Christianity? • How can theology respond to the epistemological and cultural crisis of relativism?
3. Thesis Statement:
• This paper argues that the adoption of postmodern tools by Progressive Christian scholars has contributed to a theological and societal crisis by undermining objective truth. A recovery of theological realism and an affirmation of divine objective truth are essential for the coherence of Christian theology and its relevance to society.
II. Philosophical Foundations
1. Historical Roots of Relativism:
• Protagoras and Molto Homo mensura: the primacy of human perception.
• The Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason and its eventual skepticism about objective knowledge (e.g., Hume, Kant).
2. Postmodernism and the Radicalization of Relativism:
• Key thinkers: Derrida (deconstruction), Foucault (truth as power), Lyotard (incredulity toward metanarratives).
• The postmodern rejection of universal truths in favor of subjective, localized truths.
3. Relativism in Theology:
• Postmodernism’s critique of traditional metaphysics and theology.
• The shift from objective theological claims to contextually constructed religious narratives
.III. Progressive Christianity and the Tools of Postmodernism
1. Progressive Christianity’s Postmodern Framework:
• The embrace of deconstruction as a method to critique traditional Christian doctrines (e.g., Trinity, atonement, resurrection).
• Relativism as a tool for reinterpreting biblical authority and ethics.
2. Key Figures in Progressive Christianity:
• John Shelby Spong: Rejection of supernaturalism and emphasis on a humanistic interpretation of Christianity.
• Marcus Borg: Differentiation between “historical Jesus” and “Christ of faith”; emphasis on metaphorical truth over historical or objective truth.
• Brian McLaren: Postmodern theology as a way of reimagining Christianity for a pluralistic, relativistic age.
• Diana Butler Bass: Use of historical relativism to reinterpret church history and religious authority.
• Richard Rohr: Mystical relativism and emphasis on individual spiritual experience over doctrinal objectivity.
• John Dominic Crossan: Viewing resurrection as metaphorical rather than literal, driven by postmodern suspicion of objective historical claims.
3. Deconstructing Objective Truth:
• The use of postmodern hermeneutics to challenge biblical inerrancy and traditional ethics.
• Relativizing core doctrines to adapt Christianity to cultural and historical contexts.
IV. The Crisis of Objective Truth in Theology and Society
1. Consequences for Theology:
• Loss of coherence in Christian doctrine due to relativism.
• Fragmentation of theological authority: every interpretation becomes valid within its own context.
2. Cultural Consequences:
• Ethical relativism and the erosion of moral absolutes in public discourse.
• The weakening of Christian witness in a pluralistic, postmodern society.
3. Theological and Cultural Case Studies:
• The redefinition of sin, salvation, and resurrection in Progressive Christianity.
• Societal impact: relativism’s role in shaping contemporary debates on gender, sexuality, and justice.
V. Biblical Critique of Relativism
1. Romans 1: The Paradigm of Relativism:
• Paul’s argument that humanity’s rejection of God leads to moral and societal decay.
• The theological framework for understanding relativism as idolatry.
2. Judges 21:25 and the Historical Pattern of Relativism:
• “Everyone did what was right in his own eyes”: parallels between ancient Israel and contemporary culture.
3. The Gospel as Objective Truth:
• John 14:6: Christ as the ultimate standard of truth.
• Biblical hermeneutics: affirming the divine inspiration and authority of Scripture in a relativistic age.
VI. Engaging Progressive Christianity’s Postmodern Tools
1. Critiques of Progressive Christianity’s Use of Postmodernism:
• The incoherence of rejecting objective truth while affirming subjective theological claims.
• The risk of losing the transformative power of the gospel in favor of cultural accommodation.
2. Insights from Postmodern Thinkers:
• Valid critiques of modernist theology (e.g., power dynamics in ecclesial structures).
• Identifying constructive uses of deconstruction to expose idolatry and institutional corruption.
3. Toward a Balanced Theological Response:
• Retaining the critical tools of postmodernism without abandoning objective truth.
• Proposing a framework for integrating postmodern critique into a realist theological paradigm.
VII. Recovering Objective Truth in Theology and Society
1. Theological Epistemology:
• Rooting truth in the nature and character of God.
• Objective truth as essential to the coherence of the Christian worldview.
2. The Role of the Church in Countering Relativism:
• Addressing the theological drift in Progressive Christianity.
• Equipping Christians to defend and articulate objective truth in a pluralistic context.
3. Practical Implications for Culture:
• Rebuilding moral and ethical foundations through a return to objective, biblical principles.
• Engaging society with a gospel-centered message of truth and grace.
VIII. Conclusion
1. Summary of Key Arguments:
• The philosophical and theological dangers of relativism and postmodernism.
• The role of Progressive Christianity in perpetuating the crisis of objective truth.
• The necessity of recovering theological realism for the health of the church and society.
2. Final Call to Action:
• A challenge to Christians to resist the cultural tide of relativism and uphold the truth of the gospel.
IX. Bibliography
1. Primary Sources:
• Works by key Progressive Christian scholars (e.g., Spong, Borg, McLaren).
• Foundational postmodern texts by Derrida, Foucault, Lyotard.
2. Secondary Sources:
• Scholarly critiques of Progressive Christianity and postmodern theology.
• Works on theological realism and the defense of objective truth.